Smart Cities: Disaster in the age of information technology
Hurricane Harvey near peak intensity August 25 by NOAA’s GOES-16 satellite
In the epoch of standardised disaster, we have seen 2017 come and go through the lens of hurricanes Maria, Irma and Harvey swiping over the US and the Dominican Republic, mudslides in Colombia and floods in Sierra Leone, leaving thousands homeless, and the monsoon flooding in Bangladesh and earthquake in Mexico affecting the lives of millions. Despite all of this, it is vital to look at the impact of those events and identify the problems in our growing urban environments to mitigate and prevent disasters from having such impacts again. It is essential to recognise the opportunities in post-disaster situations, utilise the benefits enabled by smart city technologies and design for a more resilient metropolitan era.
The 21st century has been slow to prepare and adapt to meet the challenges of mass urbanisation and the threats of anthropogenic climate change. In 2015 there were 503 metropolitan areas with more than 1 million inhabitants. The number, according to GOLD IV (2016), is growing in absolute terms with approximately ten metropolitan regions per year. The world’s urban population is expected to surpass 6 billion by 2045 with much of the expected urban growth taking place in developing regions (UN, 2014). As a result, cities will require progress in the field of defence against natural disasters, to reduce vulnerability and provide increase responsiveness when such events do take place.
Challenges
Disasters are deadly, destructive and disruptive events that harm people emotionally or physically, damage infrastructure and personal property, and interfere with the day-to-day activities as a result of a hazard interacting with human vulnerability (McEntire, 2015). At an individual level, the destruction of property, financial loss and ensuing health effects can lead to post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, negative associations with the environment and in some cases mass migration (Sharrieff, 2017).
'After Japan’s earthquake and tsunami from 2011... the World Bank calculated that it would take the country $235 billion and five years to rebuild and get back on track.'
In 2005 Hurricane Katrina hit New Orleans destroying infrastructure, relocation, reduced tax revenue and insurance claims of $250 billion. The hurricane damaged 19% of US oil production and an estimated 2% lost of GPD as a direct result of the disaster inflicted on the international port city (Amadeo, 2017). The effects of such events can be predicted by understanding the level of vulnerability of a particular area. Vulnerability refers to the degree of probability for disaster based on geographic location, exposure of property, and level of income or other social variations (McEntire, 2015). After Japan’s earthquake and tsunami from 2011, which left an estimated 28,000 dead and 500,000 displaced, the World Bank calculated that it would take the country $235 billion and five years to rebuild and get back on track (Amadeo, 2018).
The 2008 cyclone in Myanmar and 2009 wildfire in California, drastically affected the landscape of those two regions and damaged entire ecosystems. The effects of climate change are having a global impact on people as well as wildlife. The sea level rise, oceans desalination and tropical cyclone place a large number of the worlds coastal regions at risk, destroy coral reefs and is estimated to cause the demise of more than 30% of the worlds edible fish supply (Sharrieff, 2017).
Preparation
'... the response and recovery stages become essential in ensuring that vulnerability is reduced and capacity is built.'
Understanding the multiple challenges imposed by disaster, cities around the world are placing increased importance on increasing resilience, decreasing vulnerability and committing to disaster management plans. Those plans highlight the organisation and efficient management of resources for dealing with all humanitarian emergencies, in particular, preparedness, response and recovery to lessen the impact of a disaster (IFRC,2015). As a result, the capacity of a system, community or society potentially exposed to hazards is strengthened to adaptation, resist and change to reach and maintain an acceptable level of functioning and structure (UNISDR, 2005b, 4). It is important to note that under ideal scenarios, planning and concentrating resources before disaster strikes, can result in better disaster management with potentially more lives saved. However, we need to take into consideration that some disasters are unpredictable, and in some cases, the capacity of a community or system to reduce its vulnerability and strengthen its ability to recover is hampered by a wide range of factors. Therefore the response and recovery stages become essential in ensuring that vulnerability is reduced and capacity is built.
Screen clip from movie 'I, Robot' when detective Spooner is attacked my VIKI
Smart cities can use advanced Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure and analytical capabilities to coordinate the exchange of information between the multiple public agencies and citizens. Confronted with a natural disaster, the advantages of adaptive networks ensure that the city municipality can reach the majority of its citizens at short notice. In the 2004 movie ‘I, Robot’, directed by Alex Proyas, VIKI (Virtual Interactive Kinetic Intelligence) the central artificial intelligence computer which collects and analyses all of Chicago’s date in the year 2023, is also the decision-maker for many of the city's processes. Although the film's neo-noir dystopian science-fiction theme renders the ultimate stand of the supercomputer as its desire to exert domination over humans, like a modern bionic Napoleon, the movie succeeds in capturing the extent of its capacity to gather, process and produce data enabling humans to go on with the day-to-day activities. Despite it turning rogue, smart cities are aiming towards a central operational system as VIKI. We never feared Jarvis turning against Tony Stark in Iron Man, why not give VIKI a second chance? In actual life outshining movies style, someone went ahead and did it.
'The ability of an area to process, store and share Big Data is crucial to enhancing its resilience and preparedness for natural disasters.'
Lessons from Japan’s earthquake and tsunami experience can be learned by other cities around the world. In 2007 the federal government initiated an emergency warning system which provided a plan for natural disaster response. This strategy was tested on the 11th March 2011. Although the impact of the tsunami has a devastating effect, its outcome was minimised as a result of the ‘smart’ management system. When the earthquake hit, the Shinkansen bullet trains automatically stopped resulting in no casualties from derailed trains and no collapsed elevated bridges. The recovery system, dispatched approximately 28,000 units from the National Police Force, Fire and Disaster Management Agency and created more than 328 shelters, helping the country during the aftermath.
ICT components by TechTarget
Although Japan had its ‘smart’ system as a preparedness strategy, it is important to see that once those devices are in place even as a result of the post-disaster reconstruction, they become permanent pillars for future ICT infrastructure. The ability of an area to process, store and share Big Data is crucial to enhancing its resilience and preparedness for natural disasters. However, in many situations, it is difficult to make a case for those systems unless faced with such disaster regularly. Therefore the additional resources enabled as a result of the post-disaster reconstruction support - funds, mass mobilisation, national and international support - must be utilised efficiently and channelled towards installing the foundation for a smart city.
Post-disaster resources
In the US, post-disaster funding comes in many different forms, from grants allocated to communities to support from FEMA and other national organisations which channel financial resources towards affected areas. In post-Harvey Louisiana, FEMA contributed to the recovery process with $3 billion during the first eight months after the disaster (FEMA, 2018). Following the 2015 earthquake, in Nepal, at the International Conference on Nepal’s Reconstruction, national, international, governmental and private donors pledged $4.4 billion in aid the recovery process (Shrestha, 2015). In the aftermath of 2010 Haiti earthquake, more than $9 billion was raised in public and private assistance for the country’s reconstruction (Walz, 2012). Another estimate from 2015 places the total investment at $13 billion (Connor, Rappleye and Angulo, 2015). When comparing those figures with the overall cost for the construction of Masdar City, between $18.7 and $19.8 billion (Carlisle, 2010) (Museum of the City, 2017), there is arguably enough evidence to support a rethink of post-disaster funding. How much more investment would a city be able to attract if it promoted itself as a post-disaster innovation and development testbed, baring in mind that Masdar City partners include Consensus Business Group, Credit Suisse and Siemens Venture Capital and the city is designed by Foster+Partners, all of which are companies committed to avant-garde?
'Sidewalk Labs, Alphabet’s urban innovation unit, which in 2016 signed a deal with the city of Toronto to develop 332 hectares of waterfront land'
Furthermore, as a result of the growing number of disasters and their humanitarian impact, the need for a framework which addresses the responsibility of national and international actors has emerged. The International Disaster Response Laws (IDRL), rules and principles outline the international instruments used to discuss the various aspects of post-disaster humanitarian relief. The IDRL covers a wide range of regulations relating to the initiation of disaster assistance, consent, access, conditions of aid, and movement of personnel and materials (Todres, 2011). Such mechanisms ensure that support for both inside and outside the devastated area can have a broad impact as long as it is well coordinated for increased efficiency and concentration of resources.
Meet Sidewalk Toronto: Charlotte and Aaron Talk Sustainability by Sidewalk Lab
Many tech companies have already shown their ability and willingness to respond in a post-disaster situation through different means. At the same time, more and more such institutions are investing in urban planning and development. ‘Building the city from the internet up’ is a phrase coined by Sidewalk Labs, Alphabet’s urban innovation unit, which in 2016 signed a deal with the city of Toronto to develop 332 hectares of waterfront land using as a basis the idea of Big Data. Others, such as Facebook and Station F have also announced large housing schemes while WeWork and Apple are leading the movement on the office's side. This shift towards a new method of development could easily do for the urban environment what Steve Jobs did for the cell phone (Wright, 2017). And with backers such as Norman Foster, it could be that post-disaster reconstruction will be the next area towards which tech companies will focus as a way of contributing while establishing new rules for the urban environment.
The smart-city way
While the idea of 'smart city' and 'Big Data' are by-products of technology corporations, the data-driven system can be traced back to the mid 19th-century works of architects such as Peter Cook, Ron Herron and Frank Lloyd Wright. In 2011, IBM registered the trademark of 'smart city' and refined its definition of it in 2015 as 'Infrastructure, operations and people [...] A city is an interconnected system of systems. A dynamic work in progress, with progress as its watchword. A tripod that relies on strong support for and among each of its pillars, to become a smarter city for all' (IBM, 2015). This idea has so far been rolled out on a number of projects such as Korea's New Songdo, Masdar City, and Portugal's PlanIT Valley. Those cities utilise information gathered from the urban environment to influence planning, commerce, government and civil engagement (Marek, Campbell and Bui, 2017). Their expected ability to respond, react and recover is an opportunity for implementation of smart city tools in post-disaster scenarios where adaptability ensure the survival of the system.
Illustration by Sidewalk Lab for their development in Toronto
Adapting to evolve
Theodore Spyropoulos explores the potential of architecture to communicate with itself as well as with its surroundings. Machine learning developed on an open system allow multiple levels of participation, parallelism and parity of technological frameworks that engage the everyday. 'Emotive City' defines this exploration of adaptive and self-organising models. The project identifies the modern challenges of the city which finds itself at the intersection of information, life, machine and matter and utilises the data-rich environment for the rationalisation of adaptive ecology. The proposal is a fluid urban model which rejects the infrastructure driven scenario in exchange for a behavioural system in which communities assemble based on the need of their inhabitants, operated through collective intelligence that is local and relational. (Minimaform, 2017) In post-disaster scenarios, those needs could refer to shelter, first aid, security or food. Furthermore, the model once implemented as part of the response or reconstruction it will gather data and react in preparedness for the future. What if each citizen influences the knowledge-based system? How would that environment react when faced with disaster patterns previously experienced by its citizens?
Emotive City by Minimaform
The urban fabric currently has a limited capacity to adapt when faced with change. From rapid population growth or decline to unforeseen disasters, it is the communities which are left behind to absorb the worst effects of this transition. Through a mobile environment, the city is beginning to gain awareness of the needs of its inhabitants. As maintained by both English philosopher John Locke (1632-1704) and French Enlightenment philosopher Etienne Bonnot de Condillac (1715-1780) observations made by sense perception are the foundation for human knowledge. In 'Traite des Sensations' [Treatise on the Sensations], Condillac, after losing his five senses, smell, hearing, taste, sight and touch, slowly regains them along with a new awareness of the self, surroundings and the significance of sensation. As an adaptive system, the sensitised city would grow incrementally, reaching ever closer towards mastering events, situation and scenarios which will redefine the post-disaster environment.
P.S. Hey everybody, thank you for reading! I had a great time doing the research for this post and bringing together two elements which I am passionate about. Smart cities, big data, information technology and disasters have been the topics which I worked towards during my master's degree at Oxford Brookes. Reading and writing about them in conjunction is something that I looked to achieve through my degree as I found that although technology exists, it is seldom utilised in crisis scenarios where it can make a difference. And here I am not talking about 'oh I forgot the milk, emergency, "hello Google, add a pint of milk to my shopping list"' type of crisis.
I hope you enjoyed the read. Stick around for more and see you next time!
References
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